Language Disorder : Dyslexia “Child Learning Problem with Dyslexia”

1. A.    Definition of Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a complex language problem. It has to do with the way the brain works, not with vision. It involves not being able to break a word down into the sounds that make it up, and not being able to write and think about the sounds in a word. Kids with dyslexia have brains that work differently to process language. They have problems translating language to thought (in listening or reading) and thought to language (in writing or speaking).

The purpose of our research on dyslexia is to determine whether subtle structural brain abnormalities might underlie the variations in brain function observed in persons with dyslexia. Our research study uses anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to examine the neuroanatomy in a dyslexic male subject group. As functional imaging findings have pointed to the temporal lobes and the left parietal lobe as the most probable sites of neuropathology underlying dyslexia, our research has focused on these regions as being the most likely to demonstrate anatomical differences between subjects with dyslexia and normal controls.

“Dyslexia is a neurologically-based, often familial disorder which interferes with the acquisition of language. Varying in degrees of severity, it is manifested by difficulties in receptive and expressive language, including phonological processing, in reading, writing, spelling, handwriting and sometimes arithmetic. Dyslexia is not the result of lack of motivation, sensory impairment, inadequate instructional or environmental opportunities, but may occur together with these conditions. Although dyslexia is life-long, individuals with dyslexia frequently respond successfully to timely and appropriate intervention” (Orton Dyslexia Society, 1994).

According to Orton “Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a specific language-based disorder of constitutional origin characterised by difficulties in single-word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient phonological processing abilities. These difficulties in single word decoding are often unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities: they are not the result of generalised developmental disability or sensory impairment. Dyslexia is manifest by variable difficulty with different forms of language, often including, in addition to problems of reading, a conspicuous problem with acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling.” (Dyslexia Society, 1994)

“Dyslexia is a complex neurological condition which is constitutional in origin. The symptoms may affect many areas of learning and function, and may be described as a specific difficulty in reading, spelling and written language.” (British Dyslexia Association,1995).

Dyslexia has been around for a long time and has been defined in different ways. For example, in 1968, the World Federation of Neurologists defined dyslexia as “a disorder in children who, despite conventional classroom experience, fail to attain the language skills of reading, writing, and spelling commensurate with their intellectual abilities.” According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, dyslexia is a learning disability that can hinder a person’s ability to read, write, spell, and sometimes speak. Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children and persists throughout life. The severity of dyslexia can vary from mild to severe. The sooner dyslexia is treated, the more favorable the outcome; however, it is never too late for people with dyslexia to learn to improve their language skills.

Children with dyslexia have difficulty in learning to read despite traditional instruction, at least average intelligence, and an adequate opportunity to learn. It is caused by an impairment in the brain’s ability to translate images received from the eyes or ears into understandable language. It does not result from vision or hearing problems. It is not due to mental retardation, brain damage, or a lack of intelligence.

Dyslexia can go undetected in the early grades of schooling. The child can become frustrated by the difficulty in learning to read, and other problems can arise that disguise dyslexia. The child may show signs of depression and low self-esteem. Behaviour problems at home as well as at school are frequently seen. The child may become unmotivated and develop a dislike for school. The child’s success in school may be jeopardized if the problem remains untreated.

1. B.     Dyslexia in Children

Dyslexia is a developmental reading disorder, and while it is unrelated to intelligence, it is important to remain vigilant if you think that your child might have the disorder. The sooner a diagnosis can be made, then the sooner that child can be given special help and educational treatment, which can make a big difference, especially in terms of reading ability and general confidence levels later on in education.

There are many different symptoms of dyslexia in children. Some of them are persistent, while others come and go. Being a developmental disorder, symptoms will change as the brain develops, which means that many symptoms become more or less prevalent at certain childhood ages.

Before School

Symptoms of dyslexia in children will first become apparent when speech begins. Common signs of dyslexia in kids include jumbling up words and phrases, in particular mixing up consonants. An example would be getting ‘pebble’ mixed up with ‘peddle’, or ‘cobble’ with ‘toddle’. Word substitution is also common, for example the child pointing at something and saying something related by not exactly correct. More severe signs of dyslexia in children include not being able to speak until much later than average, and not being able to remember the words for things once speech begins. Difficulty in learning nursery rhymes – especially the rhyming parts – is also common.

There are also many indicators that are not base on language. These include clumsiness, falling over and not being good at throwing and catching, not crawling before the toddler stage, inattentiveness, and not being able to follow simple rhythms.

Early School

Severe dyslexia symptoms in children are usually recognized before school, but importantly, milder cases are harder to spot until school when reading and writing begins. The most common indicators in early school include reading and spelling difficulty, jumbling up figures/letters and putting them in the wrong order and difficulty with the alphabet and multiplication tables. General inattentiveness, lack of concentration and slow working pace are also common. There are again a number of non-language symptoms, for example having difficulty in dressing up, tying shoe laces and ties, and problems in discerning left from right. As the child develops, self-consciousness and lack of confidence may arise. Despite this, it is common for dyslexics to surprise their teachers by being very clever and insightful about other things not related to reading and writing or math.

1. A.    Cause of Dyslexia

Children have cause dyslexia. The cause of the child has dyslexia include:

1. Genetic factors.
   Namely, lowered by one or both parents of children who are suffering. This evidence is obtained from a study of identical twin children. When one of the twins was identified dyslexic, it is likely that other children also suffer the same thing.
2. Impaired function of the brain.
   Impaired function of the brain is believed to cause dyslexia. The researchers agreed that the problem of dyslexia can be traced through the differences in the structure, chemistry and function of the brain. Besides the evidence leads to the inability of the brain processes visual information.
3. Disruption of phonological processing
   the inability to make a correlation between the written form of a word and the spoken word sounds when spoken. In other words, they could catch the words through sense of hearing, but when asked to write on a piece of paper they are confused.
4. Neurological damage
   children experience nervous system damage in the process of talks.

The cause of dyslexia in general could be from genetics, but other causes are not common are injuries to the head or trauma. Some children apparently dyslexia process information using different areas of the brain than children without learning difficulties. However, this is not a characteristic of all children dyslexia. Some types of dyslexia can show consistent improvement age children.

Research has shown that dyslexia happens because of the way the brain processes information. Pictures of the brain, taken with modern imaging tools, have shown that when people with dyslexia read, they use different parts of the brain than people without dyslexia. These pictures also show that the brains of people with dyslexia don’t work efficiently during reading. So that’s why reading seems like such slow, hard work.

Most people think that dyslexia causes people to reverse letters and numbers and see words backwards. But reversals occur as a normal part of development, and are seen in many kids until first or second grade. The main problem in dyslexia is trouble recognizing phonemes (pronounced: fo-neems), which are the basic sounds of speech (the “b” sound in “bat” is a phoneme, for example). Therefore, it’s a struggle to make the connection between the sound and the letter symbol for that sound, and to blend sounds into words.

This makes it hard to recognize short, familiar words or to sound out longer words. It takes a lot of time for a person with dyslexia to sound out a word. The meaning of the word is often lost, and reading comprehension is poor. It is not surprising that people with dyslexia have trouble spelling. They may also have trouble expressing themselves in writing and even speaking. Dyslexia is a language processing disorder, so it can affect all forms of language, either spoken or written.

Some people have milder forms of dyslexia, so they may have less trouble in these other areas of spoken and written language. Some people work around their dyslexia, but it takes a lot of effort and extra work. Dyslexia isn’t something that goes away on its own or that a person outgrows. Fortunately, with proper help, most people with dyslexia learn to read. They often find different ways to learn and use those strategies all their lives.

 

1. B.     Characteristics of Dyslexia

Many of the characteristics associated with dyslexia also are found in children with other specific learning disabilities or with speech/spoken language disorders.  Some of the characteristics also may be present in some young children in the course of normal development.  However, when these characteristics are not age-appropriate and interfere with learning, they may be symptoms of a language or learning disorder, including dyslexia, and the child may need special assistance in academic or related areas.

Characteristics include, but are not limited to the following:

	Difficulty with the development of phonological awareness and phonological processing skills (processing the sounds of speech), including segmenting or breaking spoken words into individual sounds;
	Difficulty accurately decoding nonsense or unfamiliar words
	Difficulty reading single words in isolation
	Inaccurate and labored oral reading;
	Lack of reading fluency;
	Variable degrees of difficulty with reading comprehension;
	Variable degrees of difficulty learning the names of letters and their associated sound;
	Difficulty learning to spell;
	Difficulty in word finding and rapid naming;
	Variable difficulty with aspect of written composition;
	Difficulty with learning and reproducing the alphabet in correct sequence (in either oral or written form0:
	Family history or similar problems.

The difficulty of the child identified as having dyslexia is in reading, single-word decoding, reading fluency, reading comprehension, written composition, and spelling.  The problems of the child with a learning disorder may include these difficulties that do not necessarily pertain to reading exclusively.

An individual is identified as dyslexic when a significant discrepancy exists between intellectual ability and reading performance without an apparent physical, emotional, or cultural cause. Common findings in the history include, but are not limited to: (1) family history of reading problems; (2) a predominant occurrence in males (males to females 8:1); (3) an average or above average iq and, not uncommonly, a proficiency in math: (4) no enjoyment of reading as a leisure activity; (5) problems of letter and word reversal; (6) developmental history of problems in coordination and left/right dominance; (7) poor visual memory for language symbols; (8) auditory language difficulties in word finding, fluency, meaning, or sequence; (9) difficulty transferring information from what is heard to what is seen and vice versa.

Specific reading problems associated with dyslexia include difficulty in pronouncing new words, difficulty distinguishing similarities and differences in words (no for on), and difficulty discriminating differences in letter sound (pin, pen). Other problems may include reversal of words and letters, disorganization of word order, poor reading comprehension, and difficulty applying what has been read to social or learning situations.

C.    The Different Types of Dyslexia?

There are several types of dyslexia that can affect the child’s ability to spell as well as read.

“trauma dyslexia” usually occurs after some form of brain trauma or injury to the area of the brain that controls reading and writing. It is rarely seen in today’s school-age population.

A second type of dyslexia is referred to as “primary dyslexia.” this type of dyslexia is a dysfunction of, rather than damage to, the left side of the brain (cerebral cortex) and does not change with age. Individuals with this type are rarely able to read above a fourth-grade level and may struggle with reading, spelling, and writing as adults. Primary dyslexia is passed in family lines through their genes (hereditary). It is found more often in boys than in girls.

A third type of dyslexia is referred to as “secondary” or “developmental dyslexia” and is felt to be caused by hormonal development during the early stages of fetal development. Developmental dyslexia diminishes as the child matures. It is also more common in boys.

Dyslexia may affect several different functions. Visual dyslexia is characterized by number and letter reversals and the inability to write symbols in the correct sequence. Auditory dyslexia involves difficulty with sounds of letters or groups of letters. The sounds are perceived as jumbled or not heard correctly. “dysgraphia” refers to the child’s difficulty holding and controlling a pencil so that the correct markings can be made on the paper.

D.    How Kids Become Readers ?

Most kids start learning to read by learning how speech sounds make up words. Then they connect those sounds to alphabet letters. For example, they learn that the letter “b” makes a “buh” sound. Then kids learn to blend those sounds into words. They learn that “b” and “at” makes “bat.” eventually, most kids don’t have to sound words out and can instantly recognize words they’ve seen many times before. But it’s tougher for kids who have dyslexia. They may struggle to remember simple words they have seen many times and to sound out longer words. Why is it so hard?

Dyslexia means that a person’s brain has trouble processing letters and sounds. That makes it tough to break words into separate speech sounds, like b-a-t for bat. When it’s hard to do that, it’s really hard to connect speech sounds to different letters, like “buh” for b, and blend them into words.

So a kid who has dyslexia will read slowly and might make a lot of mistakes. Sometimes he or she will mix up letters in a word, such as reading the word “was” as “saw.” words may blend together wrong and look like this:

 

E.     The Factors Contribute Dyslexia

Ocular problems

Several reliable studies (helveston 1969; blika 1982; keys 1982; hiatt 1984) have found that dyslexic individuals have no greater incidence of eye problems than do individuals with normal reading ability. Such parameters as visual acuity, stereo acuity, ocular alignment and motility, fusion status (break point amplitude), and refractive error have not been shown to be significantly different in poor versus normal readers. Individuals with reading problems should, however, have a careful eye examination as part of an overall medical examination. There is no scientific evidence that visual training (including eye muscle exercises, ocular tracking or pursuit exercises, or glasses with bifocals or prisms) leads to significant improvement in the performance of dyslexic individuals.

Language problems

According to mattis (1978), the primary contributing factor to dyslexia is an auditory language deficit. Approximately 86% of the individuals identified as dyslexic evidence an auditory language disorder that prevents the individual from linking the spoken form of a word with its written equivalent. In light of this, any individual with reading problems should have a careful evaluation of his or her language capabilities and where indicated, appropriate speech and language intervention should be provided.

Visual-spatial-motor problems

In contrast to language problems, visuo-spatial-motor factors of dyslexia appear less frequently (robinson and schwartz 1973). Approximately 5% of the individuals identified as dyslexic have a visuo-spatial-motor problem that interferes with sequential organization, scanning, and the perception of temporal and spatial cues. Although visuo-spatial-motor confusion is common in young children who are just learning to read, these problems do not tend to account for severe and persistent reading difficulties unless the child has missed so much basic reading instruction that he cannot get caught up. Assessment of visual, spatial, and motor capacities should be included in the diagnosis of any coordination or orientation disorder; however, there is no scientific evidence that interventions such as neurological and sensory organizational training, laterality training, dominance training, balance beam, or reflex inhibition will significantly accelerate reading performance.

Other factors

The importance of general intelligence in learning to read has been examined and shown to be a critical factor in both reading and language abilities. Investigations of the role of dominance in handedness, eyedness, and mixed laterality have produced no consistent conclusions. Studies investigating low birth weight, eeg abnormalities, temperamental attributes, attention deficit disorders, birth order, food additives, and chemical allergies have yielded mixed results. What is clear is that a wide range of factors can be associated with reading difficulties but that these factors work differently in different children. There is no simple formula for diagnosing and treating a dyslexic child. Each one requires his or her own individual program.

1. F.     Main Educational Effects of Dyslexia

Reading and perceptual difficulties

These can include:

• early difficulties in acquiring phonic skills
• a high proportion of errors in oral reading
• difficulty in extracting the sense from written material without substantial re-reading
• slow reading speed
• inaccurate reading, omission of words
• frequent loss of the place when reading
• an inability to skim through or scan over reading matter
• a high degree of distractibility when reading
• a visually irritating glare from white paper or white-boards.

 

Writing problems

These can include:

• an intractable spelling problem
• confusion of small words such as which/with
• omission of words, especially when the writer is under pressure
• awkward handwriting and/or slow writing speed
• an unexpected difference between oral and written expression, with oral contributions being typically of a much higher quality than written accounts of the same subject matter in terms of structure, self expression and correct use of words.

 

Other difficulties

Further important factors in dyslexia include the following:

• early speech and language problems. Many dyslexic children have received speech therapy, usually for phonological difficulties, especially between the ages of 3 and 7.
• glue ear (otitis media) is common in children with dyslexia and usually affects the acquisition of auditory discrimination skills, which in turn impacts on development of phonics in reading.
• there is a high incidence of immune system disorders (e.g. Asthma, eczema) amongst children with dyslexia. The reason for this is not understood at present.
• oral skills. Although many dyslexic children are fairly articulate, others demonstrate a lack of logical structure in speech as well as in writing. Oral skills can be further compromised by difficulties in word retrieval or by mispronunciation and spoonerisms. A delay in producing a response may actually be due to a slight lapse between hearing what is said and understanding it – an inefficiency in aural processing possibly connected with the working memory system.
• numeracy. In about 60% of cases, dyslexia affects numeracy skills. This can take the form of unexpected inaccuracy in calculation or copying of digits, failure to remember calculation procedures, difficulties with remembering multiplication tables. Gifted dyslexic mathematicians and scientists are sometimes found to have unusually weak computational skills.
• co-morbidity with other developmental disorders, e.g. Ad/hd or dyspraxia. A range of characteristics, under the general heading of attentional dysfunction (i.e. Attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity – add, ad/hd), can have a significant overlap with dyslexia. A short attention span and/or a high level of distractibility can undermine the whole educational process. Associated characteristics are an inability to get started when faced with certain mental activities and also trouble switching from one type of activity to another. Additionally, or alternatively, dyslexic problems can overlap with dyspraxia (sometimes referred to as the ‘clumsy child syndrome’, or ‘developmental co-ordination disorder’).
• social and emotional factors. High levels of anxiety and stress have been identified as the most indicative behavioural correlates of dyslexia; these are bound to affect performance. A ‘panic’ reaction is experienced by some dyslexic people when placed in situations where they cannot cope. The cumulative effect of tiredness, necessitated by additional effort at every educational level, should not be underestimated.
• organisation. Disorganisation, a poor sense of clock time (often associated with underlying memory problems) and/or a poor awareness of space (often associated with dyspraxia) tend to make effective time management very difficult for many people with dyslexia.
• the secondary effects of dyslexia. Although significant discrepancies between obvious ability and unexpectedly poor academic performance should alert teachers to the presence of dyslexia at an early age, the problem may go unnoticed for several years. Under-achievement in literacy despite normal schooling and satisfactory oral and intellectual skills may persist through childhood. This gives rise to the secondary affects of dyslexia, which include loss of confidence, low self-esteem and frustration. Older students find that years of humiliation in the classroom and constant fear of being ‘shown up’ take their toll.
• compensatory strategies. Because of the development of compensatory strategies, by adulthood, literacy skills of many dyslexics can appear superficially adequate, especially if the person is very bright. However, these strategies are likely to break down when the individual is confronted with tasks that are more challenging than previously experienced (e.g. When going to college). This has been referred to as the ‘dyslexia fuse effect’: i.e. The dyslexia ‘fuse’ blowing as a function of the educational and/or information processing load placed upon it (martin turner).

 

1. G.    Diagnosing Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a difficult disorder to diagnose. There are many factors the psychologist or other health professional reviews to diagnose the disability. The testing determines the child’s functional reading level and compares it to reading potential, which is evaluated by an intelligence test. All aspects of the reading process are examined to pinpoint where the breakdown is occurring. The testing further assesses how a child takes in and processes information and what the child does with the information. The tests determine whether a child learns better by hearing information (auditory), looking at information (visual), or doing something (kinesthetic). They also assess whether a child performs better when allowed to give information (output), by saying something (oral), or by doing something with their hands (tactile-kinesthetic). The tests also evaluate how all of these sensory systems (modalities) work in conjunction with each other.

The tests administered are standardized and are considered highly reliable. The child should not feel as if there is something wrong because testing is occurring. Many of the tests use a game-type or puzzle format which can help make the child feel more comfortable. Children should get a good night’s sleep prior to the testing and have a good breakfast. If the testing is done in a school setting, the teacher can prepare the child by talking about the person who will come and do special work with the child. With young children, the psychologist may visit the child’s classroom before the testing so that the child is familiar with him. Whether or not the testing is done at school, the parent may want to talk to their child about a new person coming to work with them. However, parents should not try to coach the child concerning the testing. It is recommended that parents not be present during the testing.

A standard battery of tests can include, but is not limited to, the following:

1. Wechsler intelligence scale for children-third edition (wisc-iii)
2. Kaufman assessment battery for children (kabc)
3. Stanford-binet intelligence scale
4. Woodcock-johnson psycho-educational battery
5. Peabody individual achievement tests-revised (piat)
6. Wechsler individual achievement tests (wiat)
7. Kaufman tests of educational achievement (ktea)
8. Bender gestalt test of visual motor perception
9. Beery developmental test of visual-motor integration
10. Motor-free visual perception test
11. Visual aural digit span test (vads)
12. Test of auditory perception (taps)
13. Test of visual perception (tvps)
14. Peabody picture vocabulary test-revised
15. Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test
16. Test for auditory comprehension of language

 

1. H.    How to Resolve Dyslexia

There are four things we need to do to fix the problem dyslexia.

1. Understanding state child understand them. We should also not compare them with other children who read fluently. Do not give weight exercises, such as writing long sentences or the other. Just start writing a short exercises and words are preferred.
2. Writing with other media children who have dyslexia, it does not mean he is not smart. Thus, there is no harm if we give him the opportunity to write in other media such as laptops, computers, or shaped sticker. Children will be more interested.
3. Building confidence in children do not ignore a compliment. Praise him after successfully writing the word correctly. This will generate enthusiasm for actively practicing.
4. Stimulate brain child in reading to stimulate the child’s brain to read and draw on your reading pleasure, we can read a bedtime story, invite children to the bookstore, and so forth.

Before any treatment is started, an evaluation must be done to determine the child’s specific area of disability. While there are many theories about successful treatment for dyslexia, there is no actual cure for it. The school will develop a plan with the parent to meet the child’s needs. If the child’s current school is unprepared to address this condition, the child will need to be transferred to a school, if available in the area, which can appropriately educate the dyslexic child. The plan may be implemented in a special education setting or in the regular classroom. An appropriate treatment plan will focus on strengthening the child’s weaknesses while utilizing the strengths. A direct approach may include a systematic study of phonics. Techniques designed to help all the senses work together efficiently can also be used. Specific reading approaches that require a child to hear, see, say, and do something (multisensory), such as the slingerland method, the orton-gillingham method, or project read can be used. Computers are powerful tools for these children and should be utilized as much as possible. The child should be taught compensation and coping skills. Attention should be given to optimum learning conditions and alternative avenues for student performance. In addition to what the school has to offer, there are alternative treatment options available outside the school setting. Although alternative treatments are commonly recommended, there is limited research supporting the effectiveness of these treatments. In addition, many of these treatments are very costly, and it may be easy for frustrated parents to be misled by something that is expensive and sounds attractive.

Perhaps the most important aspect of any treatment plan is attitude. The child will be influenced by the attitudes of the adults around him. Dyslexia should not become an excuse for a child to avoid written work. Because the academic demands on a child with dyslexia may be great and the child may tire easily, work increments should be broken down into appropriate chunks. Frequent breaks should be built into class and homework time. Reinforcement should be given for efforts as well as achievements. Alternatives to traditional written assignments should be explored and utilized. Teachers are learning to deliver information to students in a variety of ways that are not only more interesting but helpful to students who may learn best by different techniques. Interactive technology is providing interesting ways for students to feedback on what they have learned, in contrast to traditional paper-pencil tasks.

 

 

 

 

 

 

I.       The Experienced with Dyslexia

Here’s a story of several figures and explanations of how they enjoy their life with dyslexia disease

Tom Cruise

Hollywood handsome actor tom cruise speak up about dyslexia have ever experienced in public to convince the parents of children with reading difficulties that there is a solution to cope with that syndrome. Tom told me that he was dyslexic as a child so it was always behind in school lessons. Consequently he feels frustrated, even a syndrome that almost destroys her acting career and has previously had ruined his dream of becoming pilots. But he got help from a learning program developed by scientology. Through a program called study technology results by scientology founder l. Ron Hubbard, tom managed to overcome reading difficulties. Now tom cruise is a member of the foundation board of overcoming reading difficulties help (Hollywood education & literaty problem) that aims to help people with dyslexia.

Albert Einstein

(March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) being one of the most important thinkers and the most, Albert Einstein centuries later to be suffering from dyslexia mainly because of poor memory and failure to remember the simple things. He will not remember the months in the year, but he would succeed in solving some of the most complicated mathematical formulas time without difficulty. He may never learn how to properly tie my shoes, but scientific contributions and theories still have a major influence on all of the latest science.

Agatha Christie

(15 September 1890-12 January 1976) Agatha Christie is the world’s best writer of all time is just totally defeated by the bible and likened to shakespeare, his books sold roughly four billion copies worldwide. Agatha dyslexic but there are ways to do it to stop it from being creative and learn how to write mystery novels were always some of the most captivating of all. His bestselling book without hesitation “and then there was none,” which is source of inspiration for novelists and filmmakers even years later.

Orlando Bloom

This famous actor is one of the dyslexics who succeed with his career. At first, bloom was having a low self-esteem because of this disease, he felt that he was not smart. Unable to read a sentence and understand it properly, bloom was tired and felt himself unworthy. However, at the age of 7 years old when she was diagnosed with dyslexia, he also did not result in lower IQ scores. That way, he felt relief that made her self-esteem back up and made the conclusion that dyslexia itself is not related to intelligence, IQ, or someone cognition. Bloom including dyslexia sufferers are lucky and make a good life, compared to other patients with dyslexia, who ended up in jail because of drugs, or a child being removed from the school. Bloom encourage dyslexic children not to be ashamed of its shortcomings, think of it as a challenge as well as talent. By recognizing dyslexia does not mean smart, creativity is needed to enhance the capabilities of non-academic dyslexic in order to remain useful in the future.

From 4 stories above dyslexics, dyslexia can be concluded that the disease has nothing to do with intelligence, so that dyslexics do not let low self-esteem because they think he is not smart and creative. Creativity is in every person, and different levels of creativity each person. Continue to be creative because the innovations come from small ideas that can be developed!

Conclusion

From the above discussion, we can conclude that dyslexia is a learning disorder. Dyslexia is usually experienced by boys. Dyslexia is due to hereditary factors, damage to brain function, impaired phonological processing, as well as neurological damage. In diagnosing dyslexia there are two approaches to the interview and also by using the test, but a better approach to the interview. Symptoms of dyslexia may be difficult to be realized before the child goes to school, but some of the early symptoms can identify the problem. When the child reaches school age, teachers of children may be the first to notice the problem. Children with dyslexia need instruction individually and treatment for dyslexia often involves multi-sensory educational program. Moral support from parents is also an important part. The best treatment is direct instruction, which combines multi sensorik approach. This type of treatment consists of teaching voice with a variety of cues, usually separate, and (if possible) is part of the reading program.

What is Figurative Language?

Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else,
you are using figurative language.
Simile

A simile uses the words “like” or “as”
to compare one object or idea with another to suggest they are alike.
Example: busy as a bee
Metaphor

The metaphor states a fact or draws a verbal picture by the use of comparison.
A simile would say you are like something; a metaphor is more positive – it says you are something.
Example: You are what you eat.
Personification

A figure of speech in which human characteristics are given
to an animal or an object. Example: My teddy bear gave me a hug.
Alliteration

The repetition of the same initial letter, sound, or group of sounds in a series of words.
Alliteration includes tongue twisters. Example: She sells seashells by the seashore.
Onomatopoeia

The use of a word to describe or imitate a natural sound or the sound
made by an object or an action. Example: snap crackle pop
Hyperbole

An exaggeration that is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement is true.
Tall tales are hyperboles.
Example: He was so hungry, he ate that whole cornfield for lunch, stalks and all.
Idioms

According to Webster’s Dictionary, an idiom is defined as: peculiar to itself
either grammatically (as no, it wasn’t me) or in having a meaning
that cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements
(as Monday week for “the Monday a week after next Monday”)
Clichés

A cliché is an expression that has been used so often that it has become trite
and sometimes boring. Example: Many hands make light work.

 

Simile: [sim-mil-lee] –noun 1. a figure of speech in which one thing is explicitly compared to another, as in “she is like a rose.” Compare metaphor. Origin: 1350–1400; Middle English < Latin: image, likeness, comparison, noun use of neuter of similis similar.^[1] Example: Suzie is as quiet as a mouse and as tall as a giraffe

Metaphor: [met-uh-fawr, -fer] –noun 1. a figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance, as in “A mighty fortress is our god.” Compare mixed metaphor, simile def. 1 . Origin: 1525–35; < Latin metaphora < Greek metaphorá a transfer, akin to metaphérein to transfer. See meta-, -phore^[2] Example: She was a hippo compared to her ant of a sister.

Onomatopoeia: [on-no-mat-oh-pee-uh, ‐mah-tuh‐] –noun 1. the formation of a word, as cuckoo or boom, by imitation of a sound made by or associated with its referent. Origin: 1570–80; < Late Latin < Greek onomatopoiía making of words = onomato- (combining form of ónoma name) + poi- (stem of poieîn to make; see poet) + -ia -ia^[3] Example: “Bark! Bark!” went the dog as he chased the car that vroomed past.

Personification: [per-son-uh-fi-key-shuh n] –noun 1. the attribution of a personal nature or character to inanimate objects or abstract notions, especially as a rhetorical figure. Origin: 1745–55; personi(fy) + -fication^[4] Example: The sun opened its sleepy eyes and smiled down on the Earth as a new day began.

Oxymoron, n. A figure of speech in which a pair of opposite or contradictory terms are used together for emphasis. Origin: < post-classical Latin oxymoronfigure of speech in which a pair of opposed or markedly contradictory terms are placed in conjunction for emphasis (5th cent.; also oxymorum) < ancient Greek ὀξυ-oxy- comb. form1+ μωρόςdull, stupid, foolish (see moron n.2).^[5] Example: Organised chaos.

Paradox, n. A statement or proposition which is self-contradictory, unreasonable, or illogical. Origin: < Middle French, French paradoxe(1495 as noun; 1372–4 in plural paradoxesas the title of a work by Cicero; paradoxon(noun) philosophical paradox in post-classical Latin also a figure of speech < ancient Greek παράδοξον, especially in plural παράδοξαStoical paradoxes, use as noun of neuter singular of παράδοξος(adjective) contrary to received opinion or expectation < παρα-para- prefix1+ δόξαopinion (see doxology n.), after ancient Greek παρὰ δόξανcontrary to expectation.^[6] Example: This statement is a lie.

Hyperbole, n. A figure of speech which uses an extravagant or exaggerated statement to express strong feelings. Origin: < Greek ὑπερβολήexcess (compare hyperbola n.), exaggeration; the latter sense is first found in Isocrates and Aristotle. Compare French hyperbole(earlier yperbole).^[7] Example: They had been walking so long John thought he might drink the entire lake when they came upon it.

Extended Metaphor, n. A metaphor that is continued over multiple sentences.^[8] Example: Suzie is a beautiful young flowering girl. Her cheeks are flush with the spring of life. She has the fragrance of youth about her.

There are many different types of figurative language. For example:

• Simile: A simile is a comparison that often uses the words like or as. One example of a simile would be to say, “Jamie runs as fast as the wind.”
• Metaphor: A metaphor is a comparison made between things which are essentially not alike. It is similar to a simile, but does not use like or as. One example of a metaphor would be to say, “Nobody invites Edward to parties because he is a wet blanket.”
• Personification: When something that is not human is given human-like qualities, this is known as personification. An example of personification would be to say, “The leaves danced in the wind on the cold October afternoon.”
• Hyperbole: Exaggerating, often in a humorous way, to make a particular point is known as hyperbole. One of example of hyperbole would be to say, “My eyes widened at the sight of the mile-high ice cream cones we were having for dessert.”
• Onomatopoeia: When you name an action by imitating the sound associated with it, this is known as onomatopoeia. One example of onomatopoeia would be to say, “The bees buzz angrily when their hive is disturbed.”
• Idiom: An idiom is an expression used by a particular group of people with a meaning that is only known through common use. One example of an idiom would be to say, “I’m just waiting for him to kick the bucket.” Many idioms that are frequently used are also considered clichés.
• Symbolism: Symbolism occurs when a noun which has meaning in itself is used to represent something entirely different. One example of symbolism would be to use an image of the American flag to represent patriotism and a love for one’s country.

Types of Drama:

1. Tragedy — In general, tragedy involves the ruin of the leading characters. To the Greeks, it meant the destruction of some noble person through fate, To the Elizabethans, it meant in the first place death and in the second place the destruction of some noble person through a flaw in his character. Today it may not involve death so much as a dismal life, Modern tragedy often shows the tragedy not of the strong and noble but of the weak and mean,
2. Comedy — is lighter drama in which the leading characters overcome the difficulties which temporarily beset them
3. Problem Play — Drama of social criticism discusses social, economic, or political problems by means of a play.
4. Farce — When comedy involves ridiculous or hilarious complications without regard for human values, it becomes farce.
5. Comedy of Manners — Comedy which wittily portrays fashionable life.
6. Fantasy — A play sometimes, but not always, in comic spirit in which the author gives free reign to his fantasy, allowing things to happen without regard to reality.
7. Melodrama — Like farce, melodrama pays almost no attention to human values, but its object is to give a thrill instead of a laugh. Often good entertainment, never any literary value.

Types of Drama of Historical Interest:

1. Medieval mystery plays — dealt with Bible stories and allegorical mysteries.
2. Chronicle plays — dealt directly with historical scenes and characters.
3. Masques — were slight plays involving much singing and dancing and costuming. They were usually allegorical.

Drama is the most dependent of art forms — director, actors, scene and costume designers must interpret before the audience does.

Kinds of Novels :

1. novel of incident
episodic action dominant—not plot unity or character
The Three Musketeers
Robinson Crusoe
Sherlock Holmes

2. novel of character
emphasis on character, not on plot unity

3. realistic novel
19th century novels that focus on middle class ethics and life. Slice of life writing that imitates actual day-to-day action and drama. Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser

4. romance novel
“The Novel is a picture of real life and manners, and of the times in which it was written. The Romance in lofty and elevated language, describes what has never happened nor is likely to.” Extravagant characters, remote and exotic places, highly exciting and heroic events, passionate love, or mysterious or supernatural experiences. The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne; Edgar Allen Poe’s fiction.

5. Bildungsroman
A novel that follows a young person to maturity.
Great Expectations, Charles Dickens

6. historical novel
A novel that examines a particular historical period and features actual characters and also fictional characters that carry the plot.
A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens (French Revolution)
7. epistolary novel
A novel told through letters, emails, texts, etc.
The Color Purple, Alice Walker
84 Charring Cross Road, James Roose-Evans
Lady Susan, Jane Austen

8. picaresque novel
A novel that tells the life story of a rogue or rascal of low degree. Tends to be episodic, contain adventure, is often satiric of social classes. Realistic, focusing on petty details; uninhibited expression, 1st person narrative, realistic style; character does not develop. Moll Flanders, Daniel Defoe

9. Roman a Clef
A novel about actual persons in the guise of a fictional character.
Primary Colors, Joe Klein (the Clintons and ’96 campaign);
The Fountainhead, Ayn Rand (Frank Lloyd Wright)

10. eponymous novel
A novel that features a protagonist for whom the novel is named:
Tess of the D’Urbervilles, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

11. grotesque fiction
Contains bizarre, incongruous, ugly, unnatural, fantastic, abnormal (formal distortion) elements or characters. Usually characters or subjects. It is an outgrowth of the author’s interest in irrational, cosmic order, humans’ place in the universe, and the merging of comic/tragic aspects of human experience. Characters are often physically or spiritually deformed. Flannery O’Conner or Franz Kafka
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12. metafiction
A work of fiction, a major concern of which is the nature of fiction itself. Many modern novelists (J.D. Salinger, Kurt Vonnegut, Ken Kesey, Norman Mailer) write novels that contain, as one of their structural and thematic dimensions, a testing of fiction itself.

13. antinovel
A contemporary movement that rejects traditional novelistic conventions. It is the literal description of experience that has not been abstracted, internalized, or anthropomorphized through metaphor. Novelists want to represent reality without imposed interpretations. No social or moral superstructure. No order. An antinovel experiments with fragmentation and dislocation supposing the reader will reconstruct reality from the disordered pieces of direct experience. Neutral, flat style (Alain Robbe-Grillet, best known novelist)

Meeting in English

            In this subject, the student are going to learn meeting in English which related to opening a meeting. Introduction an closing in business of meeting

    a   MEETING

Whether you are holding a meeting or attending a meeting, it is imporant that you understand key English phrases and expressions related to meetings. A successful meeting has no surprises. With proper preparation and careful organization, a meeting can run smoothly. The most typical complaint about meetings is that they run too long. Meetings that run longer than necessary can be very costly to a company or business. As the famous business expression says: Time is money. Setting goals and time limits, keeping to the agenda, and knowing how to refocus, are key components of an effective meeting. This may sound simple in your own native language, but it is a little trickier when you or the participants do not speak fluent English. These pages will help you hold or attend a meeting with success. Review the vocabulary, read through the lessons, and then check your understanding.

ScenarioThe following pages will be based on the meeting of a fictional company called Paris Tours. The owner of the small tour company is Pierre. He has ten employees, including four supervisors, Kana and Thomas (guides), Nolan (driver), and Jane (receptionist). These four supervisors will be called to a meeting to discuss the upcoming tourist season. The next it can be seen how to hold the meeting.  Preparation of letter: Meeting Location   Room 3 Date                      Friday 5, may 2010 Time                     200 p.m-400 p.m For                        Supervisors only Subject     Tourist Season ATTENDANCE IS MANDATORY Writing in Agenda In order to keep the meeting on task and within the set amount of time, it is important to have an agenda. The agenda should indicate the order of items and an estimated amount of time for each item. If more than one person is going to speak during the meeting the agenda should indicate whose turn it is to “ have the floor”. In same causes, it might be useful to forward the agenda to attend before the meeting people will be more likely to participate in a meeting, by asking question or offering feedback, if they know what is going to be covered. Sample Agenda : Welcome, introduction  : Pierre and Stella (  5 minutes ) Minutes from previous meeting : Jane ( 10 minutes ) Japan tours : Pierre ( 15 minutes) N. A, tours : Pierre ( 15 minutes ) Korean tours Pierre ( 15 minutes) Australian tours : Pierre ( if time all ows (10 minutes ) Feedback from lost year everyone ; ( 15 minutes ) Vote on staff picnic : everyone ( 15 minutes) Question / closing remark// reminders : everyone ( 5 minutes ) Allocating Roles The person in charge of calling and holding a meeting may decide to allocate certain roles to other staff members. Someone maybe called upon to take the minutes. Someone maybe asked to do roll call and someone maybe asked to speak on a certain subject.this should be done either in person, or in email. b.      Opening a Meeting Small Talk Whether you are holding the meeting or attending the meeting it is polite to make small talk while you wait for the meeting to start. You should discuss things unrelated to the meeting, such as weather, family, or weekend plans. Sample Dialogue: Pierre: Hi Thomas. How are you? Thomas: Great thanks, and you? Pierre: Well, I’m good now that the warm weather has finally arrived. Thomas: I know what you mean. I thought winter was never going to end. Pierre: Have you dusted off your golf clubs yet? Thomas: Funny you should ask. I’m heading out with my brother-in-law for the first round of the year on Saturday. Welcome Once everyone has arrived, the chairperson, or whoever is in charge of the meeting should formally welcome everyone to the meeting and thank the attendees for coming. Well, since everyone is here, we should get started. Hello, everyone. Thank you for coming today. I think we’ll begin now. First I’d like to welcome you all. Thank you all for coming at such short notice. I really appreciate you all for attending today. We have a lot to cover today, so we really should begin. Sample Welcome: Pierre: I think we’ll begin now. First I’d like to welcome you all and thank everyone for coming, especially at such short notice. I know you are all very busy and it’s difficult to take time away from your daily tasks for meetings. Introductions If anyone at the meeting is new to the group, or if there is a guest speaker, this is the time when introductions should be made. The person in charge of the meeting can introduce the new person, or ask the person to introduce him or herself. I’d like to take a moment to introduce our new tour coordinator. I know most of you, but there are a few unfamiliar faces. Stella, would you like to stand up and introduce yourself? Hi everyone. I’m Judy Strauss. I’ll be acting as Amanda’s assistant while Nancy is away on maternity leave. Roll Call/Apologies If the meeting is a small group, it is probably unecessary to take attendance out loud. The person who is taking the minutes will know everyone personally and can indicate who is present and who is absent. In a larger meeting, it may be necessary to send around an attendance sheet or call out names. If an important figure is absent, it may be necessary for the chairperson to apologize for his or her absence and offer a brief explanation for it. It looks like everyone is here today. If you notice anyone missing, please let Jane know so that she can make a note of it. Unfortunately, Ken cannot join us today. He has been called away on business Mike will be standing in to take the minutes today, as Lisa is home with the flu. Objectives Some people who hold meetings prefer to pass around copies of the agenda, and others will post a large copy on a wall, or use an overhead projector. No matter which format is used, attendees should be able to follow the agenda as the meeting progresses. Before beginning the first main item on the agenda, the speaker should provide a brief verbal outline the objectives. Sample Introduction to the Agenda: Pierre: As you can all see here on the agenda we will be mainly talking about the upcoming tourist season. First we’ll discuss the groups that will be coming in from Japan. After that we’ll discuss the North American Tours, followed by the Korean tours. If time allows we will also discuss the Australian tours which are booked for early September. Next, I’m going to request some feedback from all of you concerning last year’s tours and where you think we can improve. And finally, we’ll be voting on where and when to have this year’s staff picnic. c.       Following the Agenda Taking the Minutes Anyone, including you, may be assigned to take the minutes at a meeting. Often someone who is not participating in the meeting will be called upon to be the minute-taker. Before a meeting the minute-taker should review the following: The minutes from previous meeting All of the names of the attendees (if possible) The items on the agenda It also helps to create an outline before going to the meeting. An outline should include the following: A title for the meeting The location of the meeting A blank spot to write the time the meeting started and ended The name of the chairperson A list of attendees that can be checked off(or a blank list for attendees to sign) A blank spot for any attendees who arrive late or leave early Sample Minutes Outline: Supervisor’s Meeting Friday, May 5 Room 3 Start: ________ Finish: ________ Chair: Pierre Attendees: 1._________ 2._________ 3._________ 4._________ 5._________ Late to arrive:_________ Early to depart:________ The minute-taker can use a pen and paper or a laptop computer and does not need to include every word that is spoken. It is necessary to include important points and any votes and results. Indicating who said what is also necessary, which is why the minute-taker should make sure to know the names of the attendees. If you cannot remember someone’s name, take a brief note of their seating position and find out their name after the meeting. A minute-taker should type out the minutes immediately after the meeting so that nothing is forgotten. Watching the Time One of the most difficult things about holding an effective meeting is staying within the time limits. A good agenda will outline how long each item should take. A good chairperson will do his or her best to stay within the limits. Here are some expressions that can be used to keep the meeting flowing at the appropriate pace. I think we’ve spent enough time on this topic. We’re running short on time, so let’s move on. We’re running behind schedule, so we’ll have to skip the next item. We only have fifteen minutes remaining and there’s a lot left to cover. If we don’t move on, we’ll run right into lunch. We’ve spent too long on this issue, so we’ll leave it for now. We’ll have to come back to this at a later time. We could spend all day discussing this, but we have to get to the next item. Regaining Focus It is easy to get off topic when you get a number of people in the same room. It is the chairperson’s responsiblity to keep the discussion focused. Here are some expressions to keep the meeting centred on the items as they appear on the agenda. Let’s stick to the task at hand, shall we? I think we’re steering off topic a bit with this. I’m afraid we’ve strayed from the matter at hand. You can discuss this among yourselves at another time. We’ve lost sight of the point here. This matter is not on today’s agenda. Let’s save this for another meeting. Getting back to item number 5… Now where were we? Oh yes, let’s vote. Voting When issues cannot be resolved or decisions cannot be easily made, they are often put to a vote. Most votes occur during meetings. Votes can be open, where people raise their hands in favour or in opposition of the issue. In an open vote, the results are evident immediately. Other votes, such as who should be elected to take on a certain role, are private or closed. During private votes, attendees fill out ballots and place them in a box to be counted. The results may not be counted until after the meeting. Here are some specific expressions used during open voting: All in favour? (Those who agree raise their hands or say “Aye”.) All opposed? Motion to hire more tour guides, moved by Thomas. (Suggestions or ideas that are put to a vote are called motions. When a person makes a suggestion, the term to use both during the meeting and in the minutes is moved.) Motion to hire more tour guides seconded by Nolan. (When another person agrees with the motion, it is seconded.) When a motion is voted and agreed upon it is carried. When it is voted and disagreed upon it is failed. Most often votes are put to a majority. If there is a tie vote, the chairperson will often cast the deciding vote. Sample Voting Session: Pierre: Okay, now that we’ve covered most of the business, it’s time to vote on the staff   picnic. Jane and I have come up with two different ideas. I’ll give Jane the floor now,         and she’ll outline these two options. After that we’ll vote. I don’t think there is any   reason to have a private vote, so I’ll just ask to see a show of hands. Jane, would you       do the honours? Jane: Thanks Pierre. Okay, so, as you all probably assumed, we are going to wait until most          of the tours have passed through before we have the staff picnic. That way most of   you should be able to attend. So we’ve chosen the last Sunday of September. I hope             that works out for all of you. Now, the first option is to have a BBQ at Mariposa         Beach. We would do this on the last Sunday of September. The second option is to           have a potluck dinner/pool party in Pierre’s backyard. The only problem with this is if       it rains, there isn’t much in the way of shelter there. I don’t think Pierre and his wife           will want all of us dashing inside in a thunderstorm. Pierre: Well, if we had to we could probably squeeze everyone in the basement. Anyhow,            those are the options, so let’s put it to a vote. All in favour of option number one?           Raise your hands please…okay, one vote. And, all in favour of option number two?      That’s four. Okay, so it looks like a pool party at my house. Jane: Great. I’ll put up a sign up sheet and everyone can write down what they plan to bring. Comments and Feedback During the meeting, participants will comment, provide feedback, or ask questions. Here are some ways to do so politely: If I could just come in here… I’m afraid I’d have to disagree about that. Could I just say one thing? I’m really glad you brought that up, Kana. I couldn’t agree with you more. (I agree) Jane, could you please speak up. We can’t hear you at the back. If I could have the floor (chance to speak) for a moment… We don’t seem to be getting anywhere with this. Perhaps we should come back to this at another time?

Closing a Meeting

Wrapping Up

There are different reasons why a meeting comes to an end. Time may run out, or all of the items in the agenda may be checked off. Some meetings will end earlier than expected and others will run late. The odd time, a meeting may be cut short due to an unexpected problem or circumstance. Here are a variety of ways to adjourn a meeting:

• It looks like we’ve run out of time, so I guess we’ll finish here.
• I think we’ve covered everything on the list.
• I guess that will be all for today.
• Well, look at that…we’ve finished ahead of schedule for once.
• If no one has anything else to add, then I think we’ll wrap this up.
• I’m afraid we’re going to have to cut this meeting short. I’ve just been informed of a problem that needs my immediate attention.

Reminders

There is almost always one last thing to say, even after the closing remarks. A chairperson might close the meeting and then make a last-minute reminder. Instructions for tidying up the room may also be mentioned.

• Oh, before you leave, please make sure to sign the attendance sheet.
• I almost forgot to mention that we’re planning a staff banquet next month.
• Don’t forget to put your ballot in the box on your way out.
• If I didn’t already say this, please remember to introduce yourself to the new trainees.
• Could I have your attention again? I neglected to mention that anyone who wants to take home some of this leftover food is welcome to.
• If you could all return your chair to Room 7 that would be appreciated.
• Please take all of your papers with you and throw out any garbage on your way out.

Thank You’s and Congratulations

The end of the meeting is also the time to thank anyone who has not been thanked at the beginning of the meeting, or anyone who deserves a second thank you. Congratulations or Good-luck can also be offered here to someone who has experienced something new, such as receiving a promotion, getting married, or having a baby.

• Before I let you go let’s all give a big thank you (everyone claps) to Thomas for baking these delicious cookies.
• Again, I want to thank you all for taking time out of your busy schedules to be here today.
• Most of you probably already know this, but Nolan’s wife just gave birth to a baby boy.
• As you leave today, don’t forget to wish Stella luck on the weekend.The next time you see her she will be happily married.

Follow Up

In the closing remarks, the chairperson, or participants may want to discuss the date and time for the next meeting, when the minutes will be available, or when a decision should be made by. This is also the time to give contact information, such as how to send a question by e-mail or who to call regarding a certain issue.

• We’ll meet again on the first of next month.
• Next time we meet I’ll be sure to have those contacts for you.
• If anyone has any questions about anything we discussed today, feel free to send me an e-mail.
• The minutes from today’s meeting will be posted as of tomorrow afternoon.
• I’ll send out a group e-mail with the voting results.

The importance of information and communication technology in language teaching

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a major factor in shaping the new global economy and producing rapid changes in society. Within the past decade, the new ICT tools have fundamentally changed the way people communicate and do business. They have produced significant transformations in industry, agriculture, medicine, business, engineering and other fields. They also have the potential to transform the nature of education-where and how learning takes place and the roles of students and teachers in the learning process.

Teacher education institutions may either assume a leadership role in the transformation of education or be left behind in the swirl of rapid technological change. For education to reap the full benefits of ICTs in learning, it is essential that pre-service and in-service teachers have basic ICT skills and competencies. Teacher education institutions and programmes must provide the leadership for pre-service and in-service teachers and model the new pedagogies and tools for learning. They must also provide leadership in determining how the new technologies can best be used in the context of the culture, needs, and economic conditions within their country. To accomplish these goals, teacher education institutions must work closely and effectively with K-12 teachers and administrators, national or state educational agencies, teacher unions, business and community organizations, politicians and other important stakeholders in the educational system.

Teacher education institutions also need to develop strategies and plans to enhance the teaching-learning process within teacher education programmes and to assure that all future teachers are well prepared to use the new tools for learning. Improving the quality of education through the diversification of contents and methods and promoting experimentation, innovation, the diffusion and sharing of information and best practices as well as policy dialogue are

UNESCO’s strategic objectives in education. Educational systems around the world are under increasing pressure to use the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) to teach students the knowledge and skills they need in the 21st century.

The 1998 UNESCO World Education Report, Teachers and Teaching in a Changing World, describes the radical implications ICTs have for conventional teaching and learning. It predicts the transformation of the teaching-learning process and the way teachers and learners gain access to knowledge and information. With the emerging new technologies, the teaching profession is evolving from an emphasis on teacher-centred, lecture-based instruction to studentcentred, interactive learning environments.

Designing and implementing successful ICT-enabled teacher education programmes is the key to fundamental, wide-ranging educational reforms. Teacher education institutions may either assume a leadership role in the transformation of education or be left behind in the swirl of rapid technological change. For education to reap the full benefits of ICTs in learning, it is essential that pre- and in-service teachers are able to effectively use these new tools for learning. Teacher education institutions and programmes must provide the leadership for pre- and in-service teachers and model the new pedagogies and tools for learning.

Some practical answers to the increasing challenges posed by the new technologies to the teaching profession are offered in the present publication, entitled Information and Communication Technologies in Teacher Education: A Planning Guide. The document provides resources to help teacher educators, administrators and policy-makers better apply ICTs to teacher education programmes. The resources were developed by an international group of experts with extensive experience in the integration of ICTs into teacher preparation programmes.